how did the mughals use gunpowder

By contrast, such monopolies allowed states to create militarize empires in western Asia, Russia, and India, and in a well modified fashion in China, Korea, and Japan . Immense firepower made Europe the leader in colonization. 5. He continued to promote the spread of Shiite ceremonies and festivals but the popular interest in messianic, esoteric sects persisted. . Contrary to long-held notions that gunpowder weapons technologies were devised in the West and gradually transmitted eastward into Asia, more recent scholarship indicates that innovations flowed in both directions. Nuova Antologia Militare N.3, Fascicolo 11 Storia Militare Moderna (Giugno 2022): 79142. During the rule of Sultan Mehmed II they were drilled with firearms and became possibly the first standing infantry force out equipped with firearms in the worldly concern. 1. It consisted of a village or a group of villages and the surrounding fields. When the Kemalist movement declared a republic in 1923, the career of the most successful Islamic state in history had come to an end.46. During his reign no serious attempt was made to extend Mughal dominion in the Deccan and South India, and Qandahar in central Afghanistan was lost to the Safavids. Struggle hard to sit in the shade of sulh-i kull.31Finally, in 1594 he sent a letter to Shah Abbas counseling tolerance and restraint. Public opinion was regarded as important and the Ottomans made some use of polls to ascertain the popular will. There is also some evidence, particularly among the Marathas, for the use of a javelin or short spear, which was thrown. And in the west the long and debilitating war with the Habsburgs (15931608), while ending inconclusively, revealed that the Austrians had become the military equals of the Ottomans. (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 18721877), 1: 7; Ain, trans. The introduction of gunpowder as a weapon by these empires impacted the world greatly. Ottomans had contributed to the development of hospitals and healthcare and witnessed. The key ingredient saltpeter had been in use by this same culture since the late centuries BCE for, Gunpowder Technology in Medieval India | Military History & Empire, The deadly irony of gunpowder Eric Rosado, When Oxygen Is Released As A Result Of Photosynthesis It Is A Direct By-Product Of, | Hanuman Chalisa in Hindi PDF, Biden Administration Takes Steps to Improve Child Care Affordability and Worker Pay, Unlocking the Potential: What is Possible with Blockchain and Cryptocurrency. Why is the Ottoman Empire considered a gunpowder empire? "corePageComponentGetUserInfoFromSharedSession": true, Explain their background. By 1529 he was master of the Indo-Gangetic Plains all the way to Patna but in 1530, at the height of his power, he died. Roger Bacon, a celebrated early on european alchemist ( 1214 1292 ), set forth the marvels of the world ; key among them was the ingredients of gunpowder. Under Bayezid I (13891402), however, the push eastward brought the Ottoman warriors up against the powerful forces of Timur. This detail explanation on arquebus engineering was the first to spark the sake of Ming officials for the Chinese to broaden their function of these weapons. There was besides exemplification and description of how the Chinese had adopted the Ottoman kneeling position in firing. Jamel Ostwald and Anke Fischer-Katner (Leiden: Brill, 2019), 175-204. The consequence of the charge was devastating losses to the Safavid cavalry. The introduction of gunpowder as a weapon by these empires impacted the world greatly. Hodgson defined a military patronage department of state as one having three characteristics : first, a legitimization of independent dynastic jurisprudence ; second, the invention of the whole state as a individual military force ; third, the undertake to explain all economic and senior high school cultural resources as appanages of the head military families . Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal as a memorial to his: How long was Shah Jahan obsessed with building the Taj Mahal? Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism, much work has been done on the European perception of the Asian World, on how the colonizers viewed the culture and society of the colonized, and how their perception carried connotations of power and control. They were called the gunpowder empires because they conquered cities and towns from their new kind of weapons like rifles and cannons. Why Is Terracing Used In Southeast Asian Agriculture? Aurangzebs son, Bahadur Shah (17071712), was an old man when he finally came to the throne, and the empire he inherited had been bled of men and resources by the long unsuccessful Deccan campaign. [ 22 ] The musket belated appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465. Although at ten thousand feet they were not as forbidding as the towering northern ranges, they constituted a significant natural barrier, dividing the peoples and cultures of India into two very different halves. Why did they allow Christian missionaries in the empire? List 5 aspects that allowed for the Ottoman Empires success. As military technology gunpowder empires decline especially the three Islamic empire because they did not modernize or reorganized their armies. In order to recruit and train more infantry the imperial officials decided to increase the percentage of government revenues collected in cash, switching the tax collection status of more and more provinces from timar to tax-farming. Feature Flags: { What made Suleiman the Magnificent such a great military leader? Sultan Selim I moved east with his field artillery in 1514 to confront what he perceived as a Shia threat instigated by Shah Ismail in favor of Selim s rivals. By the middle of his reign, he had consolidated Mughal rule in most of the subcontinent. In 1526 Babur, at that time ruler of a city state centered on Kabul, defeated the Afghan rulers of North India and inaugurated Mughal rule in the subcontinent. They acted as an intermediate between the Mughals and the peasants and in some areas the zamindars exercised a great deal of power. During the fortunate long time of East asian Piracy between the 1540s and 1560s, it was most likely that through their battles and early encounters with these pirates, the Ming forces inescapably got hold of the weapons and copied them [ citation needed ]. 3 For a general overview, see Peter Jackson and Laurence Lockhart, eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. What is one of the most powerful dramas in history? 1: The Land of Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 611. 1 W.B. Fisher, ed., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. Poets, painters, soldiers, administrators, and religious dissidents entered the subcontinent, finding refuge and fortune there. A major cause of the Ottoman defeat, foreshadowing a problem with the Safavids a century later, was the divided loyalties of Bayezids men. What was main cause of the decline of the Gunpowder empires? Often, in fact, they were peaceful: a commander was bribed and defected or, faced with a superior force, offered a prudent surrender. Within the overall framework of the Ottoman social order, the various religious and ethnic groups had a great deal of autonomy. Qing emperors embraced Confucianism which endeared them to scholar-bureaucrats. Did the Mughal Empire have a strong military? How did Ottoman Empire consolidate power? The drill technique he was speaking of was the musketeer volley technique. century. So, gunpowder empires simply refers to the three empires' abilities to grow their empire via a strategic usage of a new war technology, gunpowder. The southern peninsula of the subcontinent was cut off from the North by the Vindhya Mountains. After Selims victory over the Mamluks in the early sixteenth century, Egypt and the North African provinces were not assigned to cavalrymen. Although the Mughal emperors spoke Turkish or Urdu (Hindawi) within their extended households, Persian was the medium of communication among the members of the multicultural mansabdari system. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. The three Islamic gunpowder empires are known for their promptly gained achiever in dominating the struggle fields using their newly acquired firearms and techniques. Qi Jiguang, a reverence Ming military drawing card, drilled his soldiers to extremes so that their performance in conflict would be successful. Add: 240 Phan Dang Luu, Khue Trung, Cam Le, Da Nang The so-called Gunpowder Empires of the early modern period consisted of the Mughal Empire, Safavid Empire, and Ottoman Empire. The Mughals neither produced nor employed firearms as well as the Europeans or the Ottomans did. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque, and Franks and Jews in one church, and observed their own forms of worship. Military Role of the Ottomans in Mughal Warfare in the First Half of the 16th Century, International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, Vol. [ 37 ] In 1654 and 1658, the Koreans aided the Qing in battle against the Russians for control over country in Manchuria. 10 Willem Floor, The Rise and Fall of Mirza Taqi, The Eunuch Grand Vizier (104355/163345): Makhdum al-Omara va Khadem Al-Foqara, Studia Iranica26 (1997): 23766 Social, Artistic, & Intellectual- The Ottomans have developed a strong military due to effective use of gunpowder, encouraged the . The treaty of 1612 reestablished the old boundaries between the two states and in 1622, with help from the English, he expelled the Portuguese from Hormuz. In terms of art and culture, what reached new heights of perfection? 1: The Land of Iran, Half the World: The Social Architecture of Safavid Isfahan, 15901722, The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. ; Masashi Haneda, Le chah and les Qizilbas: Le Systeme militare safavide (Berlin: Klaus SchwarzVerlag, 1987), 13342 The first blew in from the Arabian Sea in early June, watering the southwest coast and moving eastward across most of the country by the first week of July. We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Although Selim couldnt hold Tabriz, he did expel the Safavids from Baghdad and Basra. 2: The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 14531603, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 15001914, The Ottoman Empire: Classical Age: 13001600, The Ottoman Empire, 13001650: The Structure of Power, Suleyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World, The Great Anatolian Rebellion 10001020/15911611, Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, 16th to 18th Centuries, Mughal-Ottoman Relations: A Study of Political and Diplomatic Relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 15561748, Legitimizing the Order: The Ottoman Rhetoric of State Power, Find out more about saving to your Kindle, Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139343305.004. By the fourth dimension he was invited by the Lodi governor of Lahore Daulat Khan to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was conversant with gunpowder firearms and field artillery and a method acting for deploying them. In 1516 he defeated the Mamluk forces near Aleppo, adding Syria, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula to his fledgling empire. How Do Cells Use The Atp Cycle Shown In The Figure? Anyone who was part of the Ottoman state, from gardener to grand wazir, bore the title of kul, all entered the system as slaves.37, The first half of the fifteenth century, between the death of Bayezid (1402) and the accession of Mehmed II (14441446, 14511488) was a period of disruption and dissension. Sulh-i kull was his disposition. The only sustained interaction between the two was religious not political. Describe how this impacted the people of the empire negatively and positively. Babur, the founder of the dynasty, was a direct descendant of Timur. Archived post. Gaining control of the two holy cities, Selim added, Servant of Mecca and Medina, to Mehmeds titles.38, The Ottoman empire, like the Mughal and Safavid states, was agrarian-based. Thus, in early 1575 Akbar ordered a detailed survey of central north India measuring the arable land (establishing standard measurements for length and area) and collecting information on prices and yields. Did the Great Qing Dynasty made China weak? expertise1 . His arms are two swords and a dagger, a brace of English pistols (revolver), and he has his matchlock carried before him by a servant. Swordbelts were generally broad and handsomely embroidered. Decline of the Mughal Empire. Why are the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires sometimes called "gunpowder empires"? 36 Shaw, History, 1: ch. How did the Qing Dynasty legitimize their power? It must be considered that the Divine mercy attaches itself to every form of creed, and supreme exertions must be made to bring oneself into the ever vernal flower garden of sulh-i kull.32. The shah s army deployed cannons ( swivel guns on wagons ) in the kernel protected by wagons with cavalry on both flanks. . At the beginning of his reign, Abbas made peace with the Ottomans on disadvantageous terms (ceding the province of Azerbaijan and Tabriz, its capital) in order to concentrate his forces against the Uzbeks in the Northeast. By the 13th century, gunpowder was in the Middle East, where European crusading armies would discover it. The Ottomans were the most aggressive in this regard, the Mughals preferred a hybrid force, and the Safavids long favored cavalry. 4294 views * Imperial methods of legitimization and consolidation. Supporting them was the cavalry, made up of archers on horseback. What Is The Definition Of Composite Volcano. Jahangir (16051628), the least forceful of the four great emperors, has usually been seen as weak and uncertain, failing to build on Akbars successes and ceding much of his authority to his wife Nur Jahan. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] Europeans were improving gunpowder a hundred after the beginning gun was invented in China. [ 37 ] During the Sino-Dutch War beginning in 1661, Ming commander Zheng Chenggong used exchangeable tactics to Qi Jiguang efficaciously in conflict. The phrase was coined by Marshall G.S. Ottoman provinces in the Balkans were recaptured by Austria, and Egypt and Algeria became independent in all but name, eventually falling under the influence of Britain and France, respectively. Banding together in groups of twenty-five to thirty, these unemployed soldiers (called celali in the sources) rocked Anatolia, Syria, and Iraq from circa 15801612. . [ 3 ] Each based its authority, or right to rule, on a different set of beliefs and claims. Suleiman also patronized the arts. Reddit, Inc. 2023. The Last Days of the Mughal Empire. He also divided each Qizilbash tribe internally and shifted tribal leaders from post to post. One problem of the Hodgson-McNeill hypothesis is that the acquisition of firearms does not seem to have preceded the initial learning of territory constituting the imperial critical mass of any of the three early modern Islamic empires, except in the case of the Mughal empire. A forefather of modern age artillery. [ 48 ]. As an agrarian empire its size and wealth were heavily dependent on its climate. Internationally, the truce with the Ottomans continued, and no full-scale battles with the Uzbeks erupted.13, Although he had no significant role in the Safaviyya Sufi order, Abbas II, like the other emperors after Ismail, retained a reputation for sanctity. 24 For a discussion see Stephen P. Blake, Religious Conflict in Early Modern India: Akbar and the House of Religious Assembly, in Marguerite Ragnow and William D. Phillips Jr., eds., Religious Conflict and Accommodation in the Early Modern World (Minneapolis, MN: Center for Early Modern History, 2011), 6982. Under him, as under the earlier Turkish rulers, Iranian scribes filled judicial, religious, and administrative positions. Neither alone would have guaranteed superiority on the battlefield; the combination did. In addition, the large population of Hindus in India started to revolt against the Muslim rulers. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Cloth and spices were sent from India to the Iranian markets, and Safavid silk was transported to the Ottoman ports of Aleppo, Izmir, and Istanbul. Babur was a descendent of: 27. Akbars new imperial order was the result of three kinds of reform military-administrative, economic, and cultural. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 196777); Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: Classical Age: 13001600 (London: Weidenfeld, 1973). The reaya, by contrast, were mostly peasant cultivators and, as the empire was agrarian-based, provided the bulk of imperial revenues.43, In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, after Suleiman and his immediate successors, the Ottomans faced a period of political unrest and military defeat. How might people of various religions and customs co-exist without giving up their ways of life? In the north the subcontinent was sheltered from the polar winds of Central Asia by the Himalaya and Hindu Kush mountains. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox. What Was Accomplished By The Enactment Of The Treaty Of Tordesillas In 1494?? Although the Uzbek cavalry engaged and turned the Safavid army on both flanks, the Safavid center held ( because not directly engaged by the Uzbeks ). Like other Mughal princes before him, Aurangzeb grew discontented and revolted against his father. [ 24 ] At the Battle of Mohcs in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tfenks ( normally translated as musket ) formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row, in a kneel or standing placement without the want for extra support or rest. In Istanbul there were a significant number of Jews. --the ottoman empire. * Had artists create portraits in the likeness of earlier rulers (legitimization). At the end of the sixteenth century, as the wars in the east and west wound down, the central administration demobilized a great many men. How were the Safavid people similar to the people of the Ottoman Empire? 2: The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 14531603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012; and Halal Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 15001914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) All of this led to a more professional organization that depended less and less on the energy and abilities of individual sultans, finally culminating in the rise to prominence of the Koprulu family of grand wazirs (16561703).45, Although the Mughal and Safavid empires were early modern entities entirely (born in the early sixteenth century and destroyed or substantially weakened by the early eighteenth century), the Ottoman empire was not. The need to escape Ottoman threats in the Northwest and to more easily defend his borders in the Northeast probably prompted the move. In the eyes of the seventeenth-century poet Saib Tabrizi, the principal enemies of the Safavids were the Uzbeks and Ottomans, not the Mughals.47. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT: One of the first uses of gunpowder was to make fireworks. My question is why did they not further this technology and deploy musketeers or something equivalent? This gunpowder technology played an important role in the formation and expansion of the empire. In Istanbul he increased the number of mosque schools, making a basic education available to all Muslim boys. Sinan, the chief imperial architect, was responsible for over three hundred monuments. A small percentage of the talented were sent to the palace school entering imperial service and becoming eligible for the highest military and administrative offices. Captains License Training & Testing https://mindovermetal.org/en, Zaha Hadid Architects completes oyster-like ferry terminal, Sailor Pro Gear Blue Dawn and Classic Black Review, The land dominates the sea (dominates the land dominates the sea) QIL QDI. And, to fully appreciate the individual temporal systems, a brief description of the political, economic, religious, and cultural conditions in each state is necessary. He had to mold territories in Afghanistan, Punjab, and the Gangetic Plains into a functioning state, and he had to do it against the opposition both of his own followers and of the recently defeated Afghans. ; Willem Floor, The Dutch and the Persian Silk Trade, in ibid, 32368; Rudolph Matthee, The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 16001730 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). The get the better of was so thorough that the Ottoman forces were able to move on and briefly occupy the Safavid capital, Tabriz. The basic movement was goods and commodities from east to west and precious metals (gold and silver) from west to east. He rescinded Abbass silk monopoly and, as a result, trade with the European companies increased dramatically. Stanford Shaw, History of Ottoman Empire, 2 vols. The hereditary notables, peasants, merchants, and artisans were Persian also. In the east the war with the Safavids (15781590) added important territories but strained the capacities of the Janissaries and the provincial cavalry. Crowned in 1666 as Safi II, the new emperor faced so many serious problems (bad harvests, an earthquake, and Cossack raids) that his ministers decided that his coronation had been ill-fated. [ 37 ] The volley proficiency was said to have been invented by japanese Warlord Oda Nobunaga. Rt thch suy ngh ca bn, hy bnh lun. The Safavid Empire had a Shia form of Islam while the Ottoman had a Sunni form which caused fighting between the two. The sultans share of the land tax was assigned to a cavalryman who lived in the village, maintained order, and joined the imperial forces whenever called upon. Small arms (rifles carbines and handguns) Ottoman M1903 Mauser rifle. Hostname: page-component-7ff947fb49-6hjgs Reasons early than ( or in addition to ) military technology have been offered for the closely coincident rise of three centralize military empires in contiguous areas dominated by decentralized Turkic tribe. 05 February 2013. Under the superior war command of Babur and gunpowder technology the Mughals beat hordes of elephants and tens of thousands of soldiers . Apparent Electrocution At Local Maritime Company. 28. Assessments were out-of-date and numerous disagreements had arisen between imperial recordkeepers and army officers. The Ottomans exported luxury goods like silk furs tobacco and spices and had a growing trade in cotton. Military defeats revealed that the timar calvary had become antiquated, increasingly ineffective in the new world of gunpowder technology. Hungry and experienced, they fought the imperial Janissaries to a standstill and forced many peasants to flee the countryside for the cities, causing a precipitous drop in agricultural production.44, In the older historiography the military defeats of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, along with the celali rebellions, were evidence of a precipitous decline from the glories of Suleimans reign. Famines killed one million in the 1860s, 3.5 million in the 1870s, and ten million in the 1890s - what Mike Davis has called the "late Victorian holocausts". Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Their founder Babur, a Timurid prince from the Fergana Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan ), was a direct descendant of Timur (generally known in western nations as Tamerlane) and also affiliated with Genghis Khan through Timur's marriage to a Genghisid princess. For example, in the last half of the sixteenth century the official Ottoman historian, even though he ordinarily wrote in Ottoman Turkish, bore the title Shehnameci, that is, the Shahname writer. Describe how the Ottomans acted toward their conquered people. [ 48 ] There were many instances where the korean military used their newly techniques effectively. McNeill argued that whenever such states were able to monopolize the new artillery, central authorities were able to unite larger territories into new, or newly consolidated, empires. Based on your knowledge of world history, which of the following factors contributed most directly to the Mughal Empire's territorial expansion in South . On his accession at age sixteen, Shah Abbas (15871629) appointed his tutor, Murshid Quli Khan, viceroy.6To counter the threat of Qizilbash insurgency the young emperor executed a group of tribal chieftains, and, when he was strong enough, ordered the elimination of his tutor. Possessed of energy, talent, experience, and discipline, he should have been the perfect ruler, presiding over a reign of peace and prosperity. The Chinese intensively practiced tactical strategies based on firearm use which resulted in military success. Anupgiri also played a key role in the rise of Najaf Khan, the Persian adventurer, in Delhi. For the first few centuries of its existence the Ottoman Empire had been controlled by a chain of powerful warrior-sultans. Their common heritage gave the Safavid-Ottoman rivalry a special intensity. In 1631, heavy Troops that could build and operate European-style cannon, The import cannons in the Qing Dynasty had a high gear reputation such as Great General in Red . In 1557 he shifted his capital from Tabriz to Qazvin. . Shah Tahmasp I (15241576), eldest son of Ismail, ascended the throne at age ten. As a result, the Ottomans, like the Mughals, paid their mounted men in grants of land revenue (called timars) the timar system in the Ottoman empire was the rough equivalent of the jagirdari system in the Mughal.39, The timar was the smallest piece of assignable land. --the safavid empire. Two ruinous and ultimately unsuccessful wars tore at the military, economic, and political foundations of the state. It was simply the the domains of the House of Osman. Nevertheless, by the late sixteenth century the Ottomans controlled an enormous swath of territory: Anatolia, Iraq, the Balkans, Hungary, Syria, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. In addition to military-administrative restructuring, Akbar devoted a good deal of time to economic reorganization. Later, he turned his back on the Marathas and joined forces with the British. When the Chinese realized the significance of what they had invented, they started to use gunpowder to kill instead. The growth of the empire was primarily by land conquest they used cannon and musket firepower. Like in Europe, the introduction of gunpowder weapons prompted changes such as the emanation of centralized monarchal states. 20 Abu al-Fazl Allami, The A`in-i Akbari, ed. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of Bayezid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. Energetic, bold, and a skilled general, he readopted Akbars policy of vigorous expansion. With these ingredients available, european scientists, inventors and alchemists went on to create corned gunpowder, which had a different refinement serve. (religious background & where taken from). To save content items to your account, Unlike the heavily watered plains of north India or the arid highlands of Iran, the Ottoman empire encompassed a wide variety of climates the lush Tigris-Euphrates and Nile deltas, the deserts of Arabia, and the more temperate climates of Anatolia, Syria, and North Africa. For example, the emperor pointed with approval to a recently immigrated Iranian who acted as if there were no difference between Sunnis and Shiites, following the principle of lasting reconciliation or sulh-i kull.30 Later, he admonished his son Prince Daniyal be not offended by diversity of religion. Gunpowder produced in South Asia was consistently inferior, though the reason and significance are unclear. If, in the early modern Islamic world, the Ottomans were dominant militarily and the Safavids culturally, then the Mughals were the preeminent economic power. Raised in the harem, Safi had little interest in ruling. Published online by Cambridge University Press: Mughal musketeer. In 1514 Selim defeated Shah Ismail and his Turkish tribesmen at Chaldiran in eastern Anatolia. In 1739 Nadir Shah, the newly crowned ruler of Iran, took Qandahar and Kabul from the Afghans and entered the subcontinent. It is no wonder that he failed and was forced to seek refuge with the Safavid ruler of Iran, Shah Tahmasp. Gode has mentioned that in the second half of the 15th century cannon and musket were being used in Gujarat, Malwa and Kashmir but the most effective . At first, China used gunpowder simply to scare or surprise their enemies. The empire was divided into vilayets with a governor assigned to each vilayet. How did the Ottoman Empire maintain political control? [ 47 ], Koreans had been using chinese and self made firearms deoxyadenosine monophosphate early as the late fourteenth hundred. Generous to his supporters but suspicious of potential rivals, the new emperor executed many high-ranking officials during the early years of his reign. Akbars son and successor, Jahangir, wrote of his fathers tolerance: The Professors of various faiths had room in the broad expanse of his incomparable sway.
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