There was no Renaissance in Russia in the original sense of the term.[127]. [1] The history of watches began in 16th-century Europe, where watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in the 15th century. In 16421643, Abel Tasman circumnavigated the continent, proving that it was not joined to the imagined south polar continent. [39], Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant republics, especially the Republic of Venice. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years. [142] Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century and for the Timurid Renaissance of the 14th century. A handwritten letter by Renaissance artist and historian Giorgio Vasari has been returned to its owners in Tuscany more than 20 years after it was stolen, Italian police said on Thursday. However, Arthur died in April 1502. Throughout the Renaissance it had been known as Terra Australis, or 'Australia' for short. This year was known as the Year Without a Summer, because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815, causing severe global cooling, catastrophic in some locations. The San Francisco Renaissance was a vibrant period of exploratory poetry and fiction writing in that city in the mid-20th century. This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.[35]. The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. During the ceremony, which was planned with the help of Design Anarchy Studio, DeShanna wore a boat neck mermaid Zuhair Murad gown adorned with cascades of asymmetrical handmade beadwork with a faille overskirt and bow detailing. Fought between: France, Papal States, Venice against Milan, Naples, Spain Location - Italy In Africa, Christianity had begun to spread in Central Africa and Southern Africa. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. Leonardo set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led Fritjof Capra to classify him as the "father of modern science". In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. He and other Italian architects also contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. [97], Matthias started at least two major building projects. Kristeller, Paul Oskar, and Michael Mooney. Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome". MND Staff. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, and literature. The unique political structures of Italy during the Late Middle Ages have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Education during the Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time-bound culture. "Did Women Have a Renaissance? It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. The English Renaissance is different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. In the 100 years from the mid-15th to the mid-16th century, a combination of circumstances stimulated men to seek new routes, and it was new routes rather than new lands that filled the minds of kings and commoners, scholars and seamen. Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in Florence at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (12651321) and Petrarch (13041374), as well as the paintings of Giotto di Bondone (12671337). As early as 1386 Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("water of life") to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. In the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed. January - Juan Daz de Sols discovers the Ro de la Plata (in future Argentina). Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. [37] Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland. [63] Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which the Middle Ages had stifled. The movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 13551415) to teach Greek in Florence. English Renaissance music competed with that in Europe with composers such as Thomas Tallis (15051585), John Taverner (c. 14901545), and William Byrd (c. 1539/40 or 15431623). While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music. [42], One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th century Italy. The Renaissance ( UK: / rnesns / rin-AY-snss, US: / rnsns / ( listen) REN--sahnss) [1] [a] is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas and achievements of classical antiquity. 1400-1600 The Renaissance in Spain by DR. LAUREN KILROY-EWBANK [110][111] Like all intellectuals of his age, Matthias was convinced that the movements and combinations of the stars and planets exercised influence on individuals' life and on the history of nations. The fitness trainer, 49, and her fashion designer wife tied the knot at the Aman hotel, one of eight monumental palazzos on the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy on June 24. Murray, Stuart A.P. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle, and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science. This article is about the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (14391453). While that doesn't seem to have . [82] The term rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568. Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance, plays by Gil Vicente fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times, and Lus de Cames inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusadas. The Renaissance (UK: /rnesns/ rin-AY-snss, US: /rnsns/ (listen) REN--sahnss)[1][a] is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas and achievements of classical antiquity. It occurred after the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages and was associated with great social change. 1430.[129]. Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought out in Europe's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of antiquity, while the Fall of Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of migr Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors. As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. [102] Matthias also hired the Italian military engineer Aristotele Fioravanti to direct the rebuilding of the forts along the southern frontier. [117] The music of the 15th-century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century. Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists. [106], Matthias enjoyed the company of Humanists and had lively discussions on various topics with them. In the book Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of Gothic art: the arts (he held) had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (12401301) and Giotto (12671337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. 16th Century Timeline: 1501 to 1600 1511-20 1521-30 1531-40 1541-50 1551-60 1561-70 1571-80 1581-90 1591-1600 1501 The world has a population of around 435 million - about one-fourteenth today's population of 6.4 billion. In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain seeking a direct route to India of the Delhi Sultanate. Instead, it was divided into smaller city-states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively, and the Venetians to the east. [28] By the early 15th century, the bulk of the surviving such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.[29]. [108] Antonio Bonfini, Pietro Ranzano, Bartolomeo Fonzio, and Francesco Bandini spent many years in Matthias's court. The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. Ricardo Reitmeyer/Getty Images The history of Christmas trees goes back to the symbolic use of evergreens in ancient Egypt and Rome and continues with the German tradition of candlelit Christmas. Muslim logicians, most notably Avicenna and Averroes, had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. The greatest monument of this style in the territory of the former Duchy of Pomerania is the Ducal Castle in Szczecin. Blocks of wood recently discovered during the construction of a new trolleybus line are believed to date back . Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including Francisco de Holanda, Andr de Resende and Damio de Gis, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I. Diogo and Andr de Gouveia made relevant teaching reforms via France. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great expense. It is sometimes thought that the Church, as an institution, formally sold indulgences at the time. [44] However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. [123] The primary painters were Nuno Gonalves, Gregrio Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. [1], Learn how and when to remove this template message, Friedrich Karl Ludwig, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, Charles II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Anglique Victoire, Comtesse de Chastellux, "The Year Without a Summer Was a Bizarre Weather Disaster in 1816". I've never married anyone. Around 1607 or 1609, some of the separatists tried to start the new lives they imagined in Holland, in the Netherlands. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world). Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. In art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting ranged from the strange work of Hieronymus Bosch[116] to the everyday life depictions of Pieter Brueghel the Elder.[115]. Guests then sat down in the Baroque-style palace for a candlelit dinner . The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. In addition to the standard periodization, proponents of a "long Renaissance" may put its beginning in the 14th century and its end in the 17th century. Life in the 16th Century By Tim Lambert Tudor Society In 16th century England, most of the population lived in small villages and made their living from farming. [50], In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness that which was turned within as that which was turned without lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. You can find out more about our use, change your default settings, and withdraw your consent at any time with effect for the future by visiting Cookies Settings, which can also be found in the footer of the site. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. [89] However, the Gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. "Columbus and Vesalius The Age of Discoverers". Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. [43] It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art. From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco-Flemish school. Summit, Jennifer. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Travel literature especially flourished: Joo de Barros, Castanheda, Antnio Galvo, Gaspar Correia, Duarte Barbosa, and Ferno Mendes Pinto, among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press. ", Ferguson, Wallace K. "Recent trends in the economic historiography of the Renaissance. As the Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Matteo Palmieri (14061475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile ("On Civic Life"; printed 1528), which advocated civic humanism, and for his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. II, Burke, P., "The spread of Italian humanism", in, Religion and Political Development There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. [136] Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed. The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (15111574) first used the term rinascita in his book The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). Visual arts in the English Renaissance were much less significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The wedding weekend extravaganza culminated on Saturday night, when Jillian and DeShanna, 38, walked down the aisle hand in hand and exchanged personal vows in front of 50 guests. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolute monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city-republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented Commercial Revolution that preceded and financed the Renaissance. Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including Ausis March and Joanot Martorell. Dr Alberico Gentili, the Father of international law, Vasily III, Grand Duke of Moscow by Andr Thvet, Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1536 1537, Henry VIII, King of England and Ireland. [87] Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous" quality of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal Republican, chose to see in its character. In 1601, Mangazeya town was founded at Taz River between the Ob and Yenisey rivers . However, towns grew larger and more important. Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Sigismund I in 1518. More recently, some historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as a coherent cultural movement. [52] Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind".[53]. The day after the wedding celebration, guests enjoyed a farewell garden brunch at the renowned Locanda Cipriani on the island of Torcello. Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La citt di vita, but an earlier work, Della vita civile, is more wide-ranging. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and masses throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria, and William Byrd. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance toward the modern age. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy. [26], Jules Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The epic three-day celebration kicked off on Friday with a chic sunset welcome dinner at the Belmond Cipriani, where the brides, both wearing Dolce and Gabbana, dined with friends and family against a stunning view of the romantic city. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark,[24] play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city-states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts. [107] The fame of his magnanimity encouraged many scholarsmostly Italianto settle in Buda. Ross, James Bruce, and Mary M. McLaughlin, eds. 1716 ( MDCCXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1716th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 716th year of the 2nd millennium, the 16th year of the 18th century, and the 7th year of the 1710s decade. The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1501 (MDI) and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (MDC) (depending on the reckoning used; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).[1]. 1816 (MDCCCXVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendarand a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1816th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 816th year of the 2ndmillennium, the 16th year of the 19thcentury, and the 7th year of the 1810s decade. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. In literature the later part of the 16th century saw the flowering of Elizabethan literature, with poetry heavily influenced by Italian Renaissance literature but Elizabethan theatre a distinctive native style. Following dinner, guests took boats to Chiesetta della Misericordia, a historic church that was converted into custom nightclub for the masquerade after party, where dancing went on late into the night and acrobats performed on a disco ball. [139] Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation.[140]. True Crime's 16th Century Origins Between 1550 and 1700, British authors and printers produced an unprecedented number of publications that reported on capital crimes. However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. Because prints can be made in multiples, he had an unusually broad audience. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. Their influence was rather limited, however, due to the large distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy. Since the construction of a . Many scholars see its beginnings in the early 16th century during the reign of Henry VIII.[86]. As literacy rates expanded and new print technologies emerged, topical leaflets began to circulate among newly literate and semiliterate consumers. In the revival of neoplatonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the Renaissance were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle times). The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. Ancient Greek works on science, mathematics, and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the Islamic Golden Age (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. [19] The word has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance (8th and 9th centuries), Ottonian Renaissance (10th and 11th century), and the Renaissance of the 12th century. Possible remains of 16th-century ship discovered in Chalco. The Inca Empire also known as the Inca Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. At the beginning of the 16th century, Henry VII was keen to make an alliance with Spain. First, toward the end of the 14th century, the vast empire of the . The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between Brazil, the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in the Indies, whereas the Spanish came to dominate the Greater Antilles, Mexico, Peru, and opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with the Indies. DeShanna Marie Minuto at her wedding to JIllian Michaels at the Aman hotel in Venice, Italy on June 24, 2023. [18], The term rinascita ('rebirth') first appeared in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists (c.1550), anglicized as the Renaissance in the 1830s. So what makes you say to yourself, 'I want to walk alongside this human for the rest of my life.' 1160. Ahead of their big day, DeShanna told PEOPLE that she and Jillian were looking forward to having people on both sides that have meant a lot to us throughout the years come together and celebrate in one place., Adds Jillian: Its a dream come true. [117] The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer Palestrina. The period of European history extending from about 500 to 1400-1500 ce is traditionally known as the Middle Ages. Bouwsma, William J. More than thirty Dutch expeditions followed, mapping sections of the north, west, and south coasts. The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science. [93][94], After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centers of the Renaissance north of the Alps. [73][74] The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.[e][75]. Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti then won). The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 3040% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400. ; January 23 - With the death of Ferdinand II of Aragon, his grandson, Charles of Ghent, becomes King of Spain; his mother Queen Joanna of Castile also succeeds as Queen of . His major feat of engineering was building the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time. Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. In music, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo produced four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov and is notable for its rich, decorative relief. The research so far has revealed that she lived during the seventh century . [99] Two new wings and a hanging garden were built at the royal castle of Buda, and the palace at Visegrd was rebuilt in Renaissance style. Pope Paul III came to the papal throne (15341549) after the sack of Rome in 1527, with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. Never miss a story sign up forPEOPLE's free daily newsletterto stay up-to-date on the best of what PEOPLE has to offer, from celebrity news to compelling human interest stories. As of the start of 1816, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e., because "Great Men" were born there by chance:[50] Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Jillian Michaels Opens Up About Wedding to Wife DeShanna in the 'Middle of the Namibia Desert'. Italian War of 1499-1505. [113] Upon his request, the famous astronomers of the age, Johannes Regiomontanus and Marcin Bylica, set up an observatory in Buda and installed it with astrolabes and celestial globes. Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via Bruges, which made Flanders wealthy. Jillian Michaels and DeShanna Marie Michaels said I do" for a third time! A number of technologies from the European Renaissance period were adopted by Russia rather early and subsequently perfected to become a part of a strong domestic tradition.